However, as in many cases of the introduction of new theories in science history, what lie ahead of Wegener are hard debates and battles between the old and the new.
Time flies back to year 1921 in London.
Wegener attended the annual meeting of the British Royal Society of Geology at the invitation of his British counterparts. Also attending the meeting were nearly one hundred of British leading geoscientists and notable people in the field of geology from other countries. Wegener’s new theory of continental drift was a topic for discussion on the evening session.
The grand meeting room was lit as if it were in daytime. Standing in the middle of the room, Wegener gave his presentation on geological evidences that support his continental drift theory. He remarked, “In the fields of climatology and biology, numerous evidences supporting continental drift have been found, but for now I shall put those away and only talk about my findings in global geological studies which was acquired through my personal tours to those locations.”
“The Cape Mountains running in the east-west direction at the southern end of Africa come in perfect alignment with the Sierra de la Ventana mountains near Buenos Aires in South America when we put the two continents together. Now take a look at this,”the professor said while he pointed to a big layer-tinted map.“the vast gneissic plateau in Africa matches that in Brazil, at the same time the distribution of the igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks as well as the directions of the rock folds in these two plateaus line up with each other.”
Professor Wegener went on with his analysis, “The geological structures of different continents match so well when we fit them together, just as if we were to refit the torn pieces of a newspaper by matching their edges and then check whether the lines of print ran smoothly across. If they do, there is nothing left but to conclude that the pieces were in fact joined in this way. Since it is not in a single line, but rather many lines that we found such continuity when we fit the pieces together, we may well exclude the explanations of ‘coincidence’ or‘contingency’.When we apply this idea into the continents, we can prove that the current continents were once joined together; at least they were so before the Mesozoic Era, after which they started to drift apart.”
Wegener’s presentation received warm applause from the attending scientists. A young French geologist named Alexander du Toit stood up and said,“I fully agree with Professor Wegener’s views and would like to add a few supporting evidences. My comparative studies between the India, Madagascar and Africa also revealed correlations at various levels in the strata of these regions. What’s more, when I tracked the coal deposits formed from the Carboniferous period in Europe a year ago, I found that it may run all the way to north America.”
Just at the time when it seemed that the ship of “continental drift theory”is about to reach its destination, a huge iceberg came in its way.
Sir Harold Jeffreys, a prominent and highly respectable British geophysicist who has won the fame of “Einstein in the field of geology”because of his wide range of knowledge stood up. The meeting room fell in silence at once.
Jeffreys took a look at the scholars around, raised his right hand and then gently but firmly uttered the following words,“Mr. Wegener, I have two questions. One is that, on which layer the continents are drifting; and the other is, what the driving force of the continental drift is？”
Wrgner answered unhesitatingly and cautiously,“Modern geological findings tell us that the general constituents of the continents are silicon and aluminum, and that of deep seafloors are silicon and magnesium. This means that the continents are lighter and the seafloors are heavier. Therefore the continents are floating on the seafloors. The driving force causing the continents’movements are tidal and centrifugal forces.”
Again the audience cast their eyes on Jeffreys, who smoothed his tie and spoke in a very polite tone while his eyebrows were slightly crumpled. “Wegener’s theories are certainly very original and impressive, yet not convincingly acceptable. The ocean floors are so hard and lack of plasticity. How could the continents float on top of it？ The earth’s centrifugal force is only equal to one millionth of the gravitation pull, and the tidal force is also very limited, while even the smallest continent Australia weighs 70 trillion tones. If the above two forces could move a continent, then a fly may well propel a train.”
As if the “ship”of his continental drift hypothesis bumped into an iceberg with a big bang, Wegener’s face turned pale in a second and he was all of a sweat. Everything in the hall seemed to be spinning around him and his ears are filled with the roaring sound of icebergs. Wegener felt dazzled as if he were in a zero gravity environment.
Professor Wilhelm-Salomon-Calvi, who was sitting next to Wegener stood up abruptly and tried to make defense. “I’ve studied the geological environment in north America and Europe. I can assure you that my findings reveal that the Atlantic Ocean seemed to have not been existed at all. To this I can pledge my life as well as my professional credit. Supporting evidences can be found throughout the regions, from the sea floor of north Atlantic to Azores Archipelago and the Bermuda. In other words, Professor Wegener is a real prophet.”
On hearing this, John Jones, an American geophysicist answered rebukingly, “Please calm down, Mr. Salomon-Calvi. I must ask everyone a question: it is who that came up with this continental drift proposal？ Is it a geologist？ I’m afraid that the theory about the geological foundations brought forth by a meteorologist rather than a qualified geologist would be better called a geopoetry！”
A well-known debate was thus launched. And it ended with the complete victory of the fixism school represented by Jeffreys.
Frustration and inspiration, the sadness of failure and passion for creation all came to Wegener’s heart. He fell in silence, but he was gathering new strength in the silence.
As the British pathologist Beveridge observed, “Although the resistance to new findings are annoying and even harmful, it in effect is a sort of mitigation, which prevents us from jumping rashly at a hypothesis that has not been fully proved or experienced. Professor Wegener provided geological evidences for his continental drift theory; but he was certainly wrong in his analysis in terms of geophysics. He did not find out the true propelling force of the continental drift.”
III
Having struggled in the icy waters for three days and three nights, the Rhine finally reaches the eastern coast of Greeland on the morning of August 18, 1930.
Greenland is situated to the northeast of North America, right in between the Arctic Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, with the Greenland Sea to its east and Baffin Bay to its west. It is the world’s largest island. Here icebergs and glaciers are all around and land is glittering with the silver light of snow. It is the kingdom of ice and snow and paradise of freezing.
In 1906, polar traveler J.P. Koch noticed that the distance between Greenland and Europe was being widened in his expedition with the Danish team by Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen. The following year, Koch published a report titled The Westward Drift of Northern Greenland, in which he indicated that Greenland was drifting westward between 1870 and 1906 at a rate of 32 meters per year.
The data and calculations in Koch’s report are so shocking that Wegener himself could hardly believe in them. If they were true, they could serve as strong evidences of continental drift.
Wegener needs more accurate measurements so as to prove the continental drift from the perspective of land survey. And this is the purpose for him to take his 3rd expedition to Greenland.
Now that the expedition team has disembarked, Rhine’s mission is completed. With a purring of its whistle, she starts to return home.
Having waved good-bye to Rhine, Wegener calls his team together and says in an exciting tone,“Friends, we are now starting our exploration. We must complete our science research works in northeast Greenland and get back before the polar devil comes. And that devil is the Polar Night.”
The expedition team sets off on dog sleds. They pass by glaciers, mountains, firths, valleys, islands and drumlins and finally reaches the destination at northeast Greenland after 14 days.
Kraus has been riding the first sled along with Wegener all the way. The young man shows great courage and bravery in the expedition. Throughout the journey he has been helping with the observation of the thermometer, hygrometer and barometer mounted under the handrails of the sled. During the rest, he would help Wegener to set up the provisional anemoscope. All of these have been done under the conditions of 37 degrees below zero. The polar climate is harsh. A few members of the team got their feet frostbitten. Luckily a robust as he is, Kraus has been doing very well in this expedition. Now and again he tries to have a race with the leading dog Sarter.
Sarter is a well-bred polar dog. At the time when they start the journey, he weighs 150 pounds. His black fur shines like silk. He has very thick and sturdy legs with muscles as hard as iron. As the leader of 13 polar dogs, he is always running in the forefront. There have never been real roads in Greenland. Wherever the dog sleds pass by, there will be the road. Therefore Sarter is in fact the trailbreaker.
While they are crossing the King Oscar Fjord, a nice inviting smell of grease comes with the wind from the north. Kraus is confused. Just then two hunters come out from their igloo among the ice drumlins. “The Eskimos,”says Wegener as he jumps off the sled.
The two hunters have light yellow complexion and dark hair and eyes. They come up and speak a few words with the professor. Wegener has learned Eskimo language during his first expedition to Greenland in 1907. He turns back to Kraus and said, “They invite us to go in their igloo and warm ourselves a bit.”
The igloo is a masterpiece of the Eskimos, which was invented during their struggles against the frigid climate of the Arctic region. As soon as he gets in the igloo, Kraus feels the warm air blowing into his face. “Oh, it’s so warm here！” He exclaims.
The hosts bring out seal meat for them. The igloo is lit with a crescent-shaped soapstone lamp, which burns the oil from the whales. Members of the team come into the igloo one after another. As his conversation goes on with the Eskimo hunters, Wegener’s face turns into a look with great agony.
A host pokes the lamp to make it lighter. Wegener takes a look at his team and then says in a grief-striken tone,“Our hunter friends just told me a piece of sad news. Yesterday, the Danish polar expedition team was caught in a snow slide not far from here. None of them escaped. They were on their way to Cape Morris Jesup in the northernmost, where the Danish weather station is located. Two meteorologists are waiting in the station for the supply of fuel and food for the winter. Now that the Expedition team has failed, the two scientists at the weather station are in great danger.”
“We cannot leave them in such danger. I suggest that we go to Cape Morris Jesup first and then come back here for our scientific researches.”
The members look at each other without saying a word.
In the end Wegener breaks the silence.
“My friends,”he says, “There was a great man named Robert Peary who won his fame earlier in this century. He was an American, and a man with unusual strong mind. It is with his strong will that he accomplished his expedition and became the first man in history who reaches the North Pole by foot. In order to achieve this, he had prepared for 23 years during which he tried out a number of expeditions and had his frostbitten toes amputated. But he had always been firm in his belief and not thought about giving up even at the threat of death. Finally he succeeded.”
There was something changing among the crew. Wegener continued with his words, “Now we are at a crucial time. We are meant to be here not only for an expedition, but for more noble missions. We must use our human strength to fight against the evils of nature and save two vulnerable fellows with our humanity. This is a moment that we demonstrate how great and noble we human beings are; a moment to distinguish between hero and coward. I myself shall never give in. If anyone of you is scared, you have the freedom to choose to step away. As for me, as long as I am alive, I’m determined to go to Cape Morris Jesup！”
IV
The Polar Night comes. Darkness is hanging over Greenland.
Gales come from all directions: the gorges between the icebergs, the shady clouds and the huge cracks in glaciers. They bring snow dusts and balls as well as icicles along with them and sweep over everything as they pass by. The sunny sky has disappeared. So are the peace and tranquility. There’s only winds raging through the land.
In this freezing world of snow and wind, a few sleds are marching forward.
Wegener is sitting on the sled while directing the dogs skillfully. They are heading toward the east coast of Greenland. Seven sledges are closely following after him.
The Arctic winter has arrived. Less than two weeks have passed since they left the Eskimo hunters’igloo, a big blizzard sweeps through Greenland and brings the temperature down to minus 40°Celsius.
Yet in order to save the lives of two meteorologists and also the precious meteorological data, and for the sake of his continental drift theory, Wegener proceeds to north Greenland fearlessly with his 15 pals.
The journey in the snowstorms is strenuous. The last sledge in the team gradually gets lagged behind. Eventually the man who rides on that sled (a guy named Isenbart who comes from Frankfurt) runs away from the expedition. He also abetted 4 other members of the team to join him.
The blizzard finally stops. There’s an unusual peacefulness in the ice field. A bright star is twinkling high above. The clouds clear away as if a huge curtain is drawn open. The Arctic land appears magnific and divine with the white snow and dark blue sky contrasting with each other.
Wegener stops the leading dog Sarter in front of an iceberg. When the other sleds catch up, he declares that they are going to take a rest here. The white polar land is quiet, somehow haunted by a sort of somber and fearful atmosphere. The breath from the men and dogs rises slowly and hovers in the air. When looked from afar, it seems as if the famous geyser of Iceland has been transported here.