GM foods can help medicine. GM foods can be used in producing pharmacological products through,“medical molecular farming: the production of antibodies, biopharmaceuticals and edible vaccines in plants.” As early as 2005, Indian researchers reported the potential use of transgenic bananas in carrying vaccines against Hepatitis B. In the same year, the biotech company GTC Biotherapeutics based in Framingham, Massachusetts developed a herd of genetically modified goats that produce milk, which contains a human anticoagulant called antithrombin.
GM foods are safe. The creators of GM crops are quick to assure that GM foods are safe and pose no threat to human health. GM crops are regulated by three agencies: the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).“The FDA ensures that foods made from these plants are safe for humans and animals to eat. The USDA makes sure the plants are safe to grow, and the EPA ensures that pesticides introduced into the plants are safe for human and animals consumption and for the environment. Meanwhile, these agencies act independently.”
[Analysis]
In Sample 10, the four paragraphs demonstrate paragraph constructive methods, cause and effect, with the first sentence stating the main idea with several concrete explanations and examples.
2.3.6Comparison and contrast
Comparison or contrast paragraphs are used to show similarities or differences between two things. A comparison paragraph focuses on similarities, while a contrast paragraph on differences. Comparison and contrast are frequently combined to give a full treatment of a topic. However, a paragraph usually concentrates only on similarities or differences, rather than both at the same time.
Table 23Words & phrases often used in comparison and contrast
Comparison
like, similarly, in the same way, in comparison, in the likeness of, in a similar way, to bear resemblance to, similar to, in common with, both...and
Contrast
unlike, in contrast to, on the contrary, while, nevertheless, despite, different from, although, contrary to, as opposed to, whereas
[Sample 11]
Although increased uptake of interventions and patient engagement are needed to maximize health gains, in our study, uptake of screening, linkage to care, and adherence to therapy were not big drivers of costeffectiveness. Our baseline adherence of 80%—89%, although higher than the reported adherence of 77% to HIV treatment in subSaharan Africa, is lower than the reported adherence of 87%—88% to HBV treatment in North America. Our basecase estimate of 81%—83% potentially overestimates linkage to care in routine practice, because it was measured within a research study that provided reimbursement of transportation fees, clinics held in rural sites to facilitate access to treatment, active reminders about appointments, and good sensitization and counselling of screened participants. However, variations in these parameters had little effect on costeffectiveness because low rates reduce both the impact, as well as the costs, which scale together. These losses and frailties are similar to what is seen in the HIV care cascade. (Nayagam et al., 2016)
[Analysis]
This part shows the way of development using the contrastive way via its contrastive markers like “although” and “however”. Besides, comparative ways are also used by means of “than” and “similar to”.
2.3.7Deduction and induction
Deduction (演繹法) is a logical development from general to specific and induction (歸納法) is from specific to general patterns. “General to specific organization follows a direct approach. It leaves very little to the imagination of readers or listeners because the writer\/speaker makes everything clear in the beginning itself. Generalizations help readers\/listeners to understand the details, examples, and illustrations quickly.” (Rizvi, 2005) Also known as the deductive method of organization, generaltospecific order is more commonly used than the reverse method, specifictogeneral order (the inductive method).
[Sample 12]
Genetically modified foods resists disease. There are many viruses, fungi and bacteria that cause plant diseases. Plant biologists are working to create plants with genetically engineered resistance to these diseases. Unexpected frost can destroy sensitive seedling. An antifreeze gene from cold water fish has been introduced into plants such as tobacco and potato. With this antifreeze gene, these plants are able to tolerate cold temperatures that normally would kill unmodified seedlings.
[Analysis]
This sample uses the generaltospecific order to develop the paragraph by moving from a broad observation about a topic to specific details in support of that topic. First, it states the topic sentence at the beginning, continues to explain, and then goes to detailed examples for further illustration.
[Sample 13]
There is strong evidence that extreme heat leads to more aggression and violence. Newer data suggest that extreme weather events can cause stress and anxiety, exacerbating depression and other mental illnesses. Weather extremes can also adversely influence mental health. (Hunter et al., 2017)
[Analysis]
This sample uses the specifictogeneral order or induction to develop the paragraph by moving from specific details about a topic to a broad observation in support of that topic. First, it goes to detailed examples for further illustration, and then states the topic sentence in the end.
Chapter Review
This chapter introduces the structure of academic English paragraphs, some chief requirements of topic sentence writing in journal article paragraphs, and academic English paragraph construction.
1. Based on structure, an academic English paragraph usually contains three sentential components:
the topic sentence,
supporting sentences,
and the concluding sentence.
2. There are seven principal means of paragraph construction:
definition,
illustration,
development by time,
development by space,
cause and effect,
comparison and contrast,
and deduction and induction.
Assignments
Task 1
Identify the different methods of paragraph structural development and paragraph construction in the following excerpt “Stress: Personality and Gender Difference” by Cynthia Kirk.
Stress is a condition of mental or emotional tension. Today, we tell about the effects of stress on peoples health. Many people suffered mental and emotional problems after the September Eleventh terrorist attacks in the United States last year. Terrorism creates fear and fear often leads to severe stress. Studies suggest that stress can reduce the bodys ability to fight disease and can lead to serious health problems. Stress affects everybody every day. It is your bodys reaction to
physical, chemical, emotional or environmental influences. Some stress is unavoidable and may even be good for us. Stress can keep our bodies and minds strong. It gives us the push we need to react to an urgent situation. Some people say it makes them more productive at work and gives them more energy.
Too much stress, however, can be harmful. It may make an existing health problem worse. Or it can lead to illness if a person is at risk for the condition. For example, your body reacts to stressful situations by raising your blood pressure and making your heart work harder. This is especially dangerous if you already have heart or artery disease or high blood pressure. Stress is more likely to be harmful if you feel helpless to deal with the problem or situation that causes the stress.
Anything you see as a problem can cause stress. It can be caused by everyday situations or by major problems. Stress results when something causes your body to act if it were under attack. Sources of stress can be physical, such as injury or illness. Or they can be mental, such as problems with your family, job, health or finances. Many visits to doctors are for conditions related to stress. Stress can lead to many other health problems if people try to ease it by smoking, drinking alcohol, taking drugs, or by eating more or less than normal. (黃一瑜、閔楠、殷紅梅，2008)
Task 2
Consult paragraph samples in this unit and write a paragraph related to your major with a topic sentence at the beginning, keeping the paragraph unified and coherent.
Task 3
Consult paragraph samples in this unit and write a paragraph with a deductive logical order and with explanations, examples, statistics as well.
Chapter ThreeCoherence in English Medical Academic Paper Writing
Chapter Three
Coherence in English Medical
Academic Paper Writing
Leadin Questions
What do you know about the smooth and natural running of academic English writing?
Learning Objectives
After learning this unit, you will be able to:
1. understand the theory of paragraph unity, coherence and cohesion in English medical academic paper writing,
2. master ways of constructing unified, coherent and cohesive academic English paragraphs and essays,
3. and write a logical, cohesive paragraph or essay with a unified theme.
參考答案
課件申請
學術資源
3.1Introduction to the theory of
discourse coherence
Coherence is semantically meaningful in text linguistics. It is usually gained through the use of syntactical features: deictic
, anaphoric and cataphoric elements, a logical tense structure, and presuppositions connected to general world knowledge as well. It is defined as the continuity of text meanings, and as the mutual access and relevance, within a concept framework of Beaugrande and Dressler (1981). Moreover, coherence is a vital term in L2 writings because of its focus upon the content and upon formal illustrations.
[Sample 1]
Early recognition may be difficult in countries such as the United States, where most physicians have never seen a case of yellow fever and know little about the clinical manifestations. Typically, yellow fever is suspected on the basis of clinical presentation and confirmed later, since definitive diagnosis requires testing available only in specialized laboratories.The clinical illness manifests in three stages: infection, remission, and intoxication.
During the infection stage, patients present after a 3to6day incubation period with a nonspecific febrile illness that is difficult to distinguish from other flulike diseases. High fevers associated with bradycardia, leucopenia, and transaminate elevations may provide a clue to the diagnosis, and patients will be viremic during this period.
This initial stage is followed by a period of remission, when clinical improvement occurs and most patients fully recover. However, 15% to 20% of patients have progression to the intoxication stage, in which symptoms recur after 24 to 48 hours. This stage is characterized by high fevers, hemorrhagic manifestations, severe hepatic dysfunction and jaundice (hence the name “yellow fever”), renal failure, cardiovascular abnormalities, central nervous system dysfunction, and shock. Antibodies may be detected during this stage; however, viremia is usually resolved. Casefatality rates range from 20% to 60% in patients in whom severe disease develops, and treatment is supportive, since no antiviral therapies are currently available.
Yellow fever is the most severe arbovirus ever to circulate in the Americas, and although vaccination campaigns and vectorcontrol efforts have eliminated it from many areas, sylvatic transmission cycles continue to occur in endemic tropical regions. As with all potentially reemerging infectious diseases, public health awareness and preparedness are essential to prevent a resurgence of this historical threat. (Paules & Fauci, 2017)
[Analysis]
This is a unified essay with the central idea in the first paragraph—three stages of yellow fever, with a topic sentence at the beginning of the two supporting paragraphs as underlined. The last paragraph restates the severe effects of yellow fever in a new way. The flow of ideas occurs in a straight line from the opening sentence to the last sentence. Moreover, in each supporting paragraph there are sufficient evidence, data or supports to fully explain the central theme.
Deictic parts are: person such as “most physicians”; time such as “this initial stage”, “the infection stage”, “this period”, “this historical threat”; place such as “the United States”;
Anaphoric parts are: 15% to 20% of patients, it;
Presupposition parts are:the basis of clinical presentation, Yellow fever is the most severe arbovirus, other flulike diseases, continue to occur, this initial stage, etc.
[Sample 2]
The online competition between pro and antivaccination views (excerpted)
Seven unexpected features of this cluster network (Fig. 1) and its evolution (Fig. 2) together explain why negative views have become so robust and resilient, despite a considerable number of news stories that supported vaccination and were against antivaccination views during the measles outbreak of 2019 and recent efforts against antivaccination views from provaccination clusters and Facebook.
First, although antivaccination clusters are smaller numerically (that is, have a minority total size, Fig. 1d) and have ideologically fringe opinions, antivaccination clusters have become central in terms of the positioning within the network (Fig. 1a). Specifically, whereas provaccination clusters are confined to the smallest two of the three network patches (Fig. 2a), antivaccination clusters dominate the main network patch in which they are heavily entangled with a very large presence of undecided clusters (more than 50 million undecided individuals). This means that the provaccination clusters in the smaller network patches may remain ignorant of the main conflict and have the wrong impression that they are winning.
Second, instead of the undecided population being passively persuaded by the anti or provaccination populations, undecided individuals are highly active: the undecided clusters have the highest growth of new outlinks (Fig. 1a), followed by antivaccination clusters. Moreover, it is the undecided clusters who are entangled with the antivaccination clusters in the main network patch that tend to show this high outlink growth. These findings challenge our current thinking that undecided individuals are a passive background population in the battle for “hearts and minds”. (Johnson et al., 2020)
[Analysis]
This excerpt is coherent, with a deductive order such as “antivaccination” and “provaccination”, and with cohesive ties such as grammatical ties “first”, “second”, “instead of the undecided population” and lexical ties “vaccination”, “antivaccination”, “provaccination”, and “views”.
3.2Coherent conventions and thematic
progression in medical essays
A paragraph has a topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. These sentences should lead to one central theme, with the topic sentence stating the main idea, supporting sentences pinpointing the main idea with evidence, and a concluding sentence restating the main idea in a new way. So a paragraph has the feature of unity in meaning, as in Sample 1.
3.2.1Paragraph unity in medical journal essays
A written discourse is made up of two or more paragraphs, with a central idea called thesis statement. A well written essay is unified as shown in this chart as in Sample 1.
Paragraph 1Main Idea