行為決策理論關注管理者的心理偏差,目前主要有三個視角在探討管理者的過度自信和企業風險承擔的關係:管理者過高估計自己解決問題的能力(Camerer & Lovallo,1999);過低估計資源需求和過高估計企業的資源稟賦(Shane & Stuart,2002);過低估計企業麵臨的環境的不確定性(March & Shapira,1987)。具體相關研究如下:首先,如果管理者是過度自信的,那麼他們將高估自己解決問題的能力(Hayward, et al.,2006),這樣的認知偏差可能導致管理者高估企業戰略決策收益的可能性,高估企業對決策的執行能力。其次,過度自信的管理者低估為實施戰略而產生的對企業外部資源的需求,同時高估了企業自身的資源稟賦(Shane & Stuart,2002)。Malmendier & Tate(2005)的研究發現,過度自信的管理者在融資的時候更傾向於內部融資而不是外部融資,因為他們相信企業的內部融資足夠滿足企業戰略實施的資源需求。這種資源稟賦方麵的認知偏差導致企業的管理者高估企業戰略實施可能帶來的收益。Chatterjee & Hambrick(2007)認為,上述的認知偏差將導致管理者樂觀,從而傾向於選擇高風險的戰略決策。最後,過度自信會導致管理者低估企業運營環境的不確定性。過度自信的管理者通常認為他們掌握了更多的信息(實際上並不知道那麼多),而且認為自己掌握的信息更有價值。在信息上的認知偏差導致過度自信的管理者認為,他們對企業的行動和結果可以控製得很好(Hiller & Hambrick,2005)。Durand(2003)認為,如果管理者認為自己的控製能力越高,那麼他低估企業風險的可能性就愈大,同時企業的業績將表現得越差。上述三種觀點都認為,企業的管理者在環境評估時過低估計了風險,導致企業實際承擔了更多的風險,說明管理者的過度自信對企業戰略選擇和風險承擔有重要的影響(Chatterjee & Hambrick,2007)。
決策權威
從某種意義上講,企業生存和發展的前提是適度承擔風險(Shapira,1995)。風險與收益的均衡原則決定了企業的風險行為選擇,即風險承擔程度的選擇。以往學者們主要從外部環境、管理者薪酬激勵以及企業股權結構等方麵分析企業風險承擔的影響因素。例如,Eisenmann(2002)研究發現管理者股權以及業務多樣化都與企業風險承擔呈正相關關係;Simsek(2007)對管理者任期與企業績效間關係的研究發現高管團隊的風險承擔在管理者任期與企業績效間的關係中發揮中介作用。總之,以往對企業風險承擔影響因素的研究都將管理者看作是理性的。
學者們將管理者決策權與包括兼並、債務融資選擇、企業績效在內的多個重要企業結果聯係起來,進行了大量的實證研究,驗證了決策權威對企業的重要影響。例如,Bebchuk等(2011)研究發現,管理者的決策權威與公司價值、盈利等企業結果負相關;Pornsit等(2011)也支持管理者權威與企業杠杆水平負相關,進而有損於企業的績效;Adam(2005)的研究支持管理者的決策權威與企業績效變動正相關;Brown & Sarma(2006)研究發現管理者決策權威與兼並正相關。
根據Haleblian & Finklstein(1993)的說法,決策權威是指將個人意誌施加於他人的能力,是企業正式授予權威以及管理者自身擁有的非正式權威的整合。因此隻有在社會和組織情景中,決策權威才有意義。Sah & Stiglitz(1986)認為群體決策中存在多樣化意見效應,企業最終決策是群體內個人意見妥協的結果,團隊內部的權威分布影響決策的形成。Hambrick & Finkelstein(1987)也認為管理者對組織成果的影響取決於其實際擁有的決策權威。
Finkelstein將管理者的決策權威明確劃分為結構權威、所有者權威、專家權威及聲望權威。在此基礎上,楊繼東(2010)提出了在中國情境下管理者決策權威的分類:位置權威、所有者權威、聲望權威和地位穩固權威。管理者位置權威以組織賦予管理者的權力為基礎,是由其管理者的職位所決定的。位置權威是四種權威中被研究最多的,也是最明顯的權威。Adams(2005)以位置權威為對象,發現管理者決策權威與績效變動正相關。Boyd(1995)發現管理者兩職合一與績效變動負相關。人們對正式權威的更多順從使得管理者控製了更多的資源,對他人的影響力得到增強。在這種環境下,過度自信的管理者“控製幻覺”更加明顯,傾向於認為自己有能力處理好一切問題,因而其冒險傾向得到強化。
管理者所有者權威以管理者能以所有者的身份發揮作用為基礎,一般由管理者持有本公司股票的比例體現。以往研究承認代理人主導的企業可能比所有者主導的企業更保守,規避風險的傾向越明顯。Eisenmann(2002)的研究表明,隨著管理者持股比例的增多,企業風險承擔傾向增強,原因在於股東從風險項目中獲取的好處比作為代理人的管理者要多得多,而風險帶來的損失對兩者都有很大影響。因此,隨著持股比例的增加,一方麵,管理者願意承擔的風險越大;另一方麵,管理者在股東大會及董事會中的發言權越大,從而增強了管理者在整個企業的影響力,同樣的“控製錯覺”得到強化,其冒風險傾向越明顯。
管理者聲望權威與管理者的個人魅力、專業知識以及資曆相關。管理者憑借豐富的專業知識、多年的工作經驗以及正直的行為等獲得大家的認可與尊敬,從而獲得並強化了聲望權威。聲望權威賦予管理者強大的無形影響力(有時可能比正式權威更有力),從而使得管理者意誌通過對別人行為的控製在企業決策中得到更多體現。在這種環境下,過度自信的管理者的“控製錯覺”同樣得到強化,追逐風險傾向更加突出。
管理者地位穩固權威,指的是管理者權威的穩固程度。權威的穩固意味著管理者可以在較長時間內保持對企業資源、信息的控製,可以影響其他管理者的長期行為,從而在企業中樹立起“權威”的形象。在這種環境下,過度自信的管理者一方麵對未來不確定性的估計更低,另一方麵久居高位,自我膨脹式的自滿情緒增強。而這些都將導致管理者對企業風險的低估。
領導崗位需求
領導崗位需求(executive job demands)作為管理者管理決策過程中的必不可少的因素,進入學者的研究視野。領導崗位需求是指管理者感受到的工作困難或挑戰的程度(Hambrick,Finkelstein & Mooney,2005),強調管理者對工作困難或挑戰的主觀感受。領導崗位需求不是在一般員工崗位需求的基礎上進行的簡單推導,因為兩者的產生來源和其對企業產生的影響存在很大的差異。比如一般員工的崗位需求普遍被認為取決於組織內部的運營特點、任務設計等問題(Gardner & Cummings,1988),很少考慮企業外部環境的影響,但管理者在為企業製定戰略決策時是不可能忽略企業外部環境因素的(Miles & Snow,1978)。領導崗位需求也不同於被大家熟知的領導壓力,領導崗位需求是領導壓力的一個來源,同時領導壓力也會反作用於領導崗位需求。如果管理者感受到的領導壓力越大,那麼管理者也將感受到更強的領導崗位需求。按照Hambrick等人對領導崗位需求的定義,領導崗位需求受三個因素的影響:任務挑戰、業績挑戰和管理者抱負。
1. 任務挑戰因素
企業管理者所麵臨的崗位環境是不同的,有些領導崗位的任務難度很大,將直接導致這些管理者要實現企業的業績目標變得非常困難。環境和組織是影響任務挑戰的兩個重要因素。企業所麵臨的市場環境的寬鬆程度、不確定性和複雜性是影響管理者任務挑戰的主要因素。市場寬鬆性是指,企業麵臨的環境能夠維持企業持續增長的能力。一個寬鬆的市場可以讓企業獲得很多的機會和資源,這將導致企業管理者在進行戰略決策時有很多的自由空間。市場的複雜性是指,企業的運營環境的競爭程度,比如企業所處的行業是完全競爭的行業,進入門檻很低,競爭者非常多,那麼管理者製定決策時將麵臨很大的挑戰(Hambrick,Geletkanycz & Fredrickson,1993)。市場的不確定性是指企業麵臨的環境是不穩定而且不可預測的,不確定性會導致信息的不穩定和不可靠,這將增加管理者實現任務挑戰的難度。組織特征也影響管理者的領導崗位需求,如組織的資源稟賦越多,管理者的崗位需求就相對越低;如果企業可以運用的資源很少,那麼管理者要實現高的企業績效將感受到很多的壓力。組織戰略和組織結構的複雜性也是領導崗位需求的重要來源,如大型企業中各個職能單位之間業務聯係密切而且複雜,那麼就要求企業的管理者有很強的資源整合與協調能力;小而簡單的企業這方麵的要求就低很多(Henderson & Fredrickson,1996)。
2. 業績挑戰因素
企業的所有者獲得投資回報和財富增值的要求直接產生了管理者對企業業績的要求,管理者對企業業績要求的不同會導致其所麵臨的業績挑戰的程度不同。當然,企業作為一個利益相關者的集合,除股東外的其他企業參與者出於不同的角度同樣也會對企業有業績要求,如員工希望有更好的報酬,客戶希望獲得更有價值的產品或服務等,這些都將增加管理者的業績挑戰壓力。所有權和經營權分離的現代企業中,管理者的業績壓力主要來源於股東,在一個有效的控製權市場的環境下尤為如此(Fama & Jensen,1983)。管理者麵臨的業績挑戰還依賴於管理者的曆史和當前的管理業績。Hambrick等(1995)的研究發現近期業績不好的管理者有更強的戰略變革傾向,而業績好的管理者往往更滿足於現狀。但是,考慮到市場環境及企業內部資源稟賦,業績好的管理者也可能將更多資源配置於研發部門,以期更加可持續地發展。
3. 管理者抱負因素
各種不同的動機促使管理者傾向於努力實現企業的業績目標,其中管理者的個人抱負是非常重要的因素,而且管理者間的抱負存在很多差異。有些管理者的目標在於提高企業的業績,他們將更多的焦點放在對自身能力的要求上,而不是對企業運營環境的要求上;相反,有些管理者的經營目標就是維持企業的正常運轉和業績水平,那麼他們就更多關注企業的運營環境而弱化對自身能力的要求。上述觀點說明管理者可以部分決定自己的崗位需求,那些誌在提高企業績效的管理者會承擔更多的領導崗位需求,即使組織和環境對他們並沒有那麼高的需求。管理者追求最大化企業業績表現的個人抱負,可能來源於不同層麵的因素。第一,來源於個人層麵的因素。如對成就的渴望或者控製的需要(Miller & Droge,1986;Miller et al,1982),也可能來源於管理者的年齡和領導任期方麵的因素。Hambrick,Finkelstein & Mooney(2005)的調查發現,年輕的、在職業生涯早期的管理者有更強的欲望來證明自己的能力,而年紀大的、職業生涯相對成功的管理者的業績抱負則明顯減弱。第二,來源於企業對管理者設計的、與企業業績相關的薪酬激勵體係。如股票期權、以業績為基礎的薪酬體係或管理層持股等(Alchian & Demsetz,1972;Raviv,1985)。總體來講,在管理者麵臨的任務挑戰和業績挑戰的基礎上,管理者的個人抱負進一步增強了管理者的崗位需求。
董事會特征
公司治理是研究企業中權力的來源、分配及運行機製的理論,公司治理機製可以通過協調權力在利益相關者之間的分配有效減少代理成本,改善代理問題帶來的負麵作用。因此,有效的公司治理機製可以改善企業的風險承擔水平。從代理理論出發研究企業風險承擔的影響因素是現有研究的主要視角,公司治理機製主要通過對管理層的激勵和約束兩個方麵協調管理層與股東風險偏好的差異,減弱管理層機會主義行為對企業風險承擔的負麵影響。
以董事會為核心的內部治理機製一方麵可以有效激勵和約束企業管理層,促使管理層和股東的利益趨於一致,減少管理層的自利行為,進而提高企業風險承擔水平;另一方麵可以通過發揮谘詢功能改善管理層的經營決策,從而促進企業對風險的合理承擔。
目前,關於董事會規模對企業風險承擔水平的影響,學者們還沒有形成統一的意見。有研究發現董事會的規模越小,企業越有可能投資風險高的項目(Cheng,2008; Wang,2012)。一方麵是因為群體決策的最終結果是對多元意見的妥協,隨著董事會規模的增加,董事意見多元性也隨之增加,高風險的項目被拒絕的可能性越大,最終更可能妥協於比較保守的投資項目;另一方麵,隨著規模的增大,集體決策的效率會變低,董事會成員間“搭便車”現象也會弱化董事會對管理層的監督作用。
董事會獨立性是影響董事會治理效果的重要因素。董事按照其與公司的關係分為外部董事和內部董事。其中內部董事由於利益關係可能會影響董事會監督職能的發揮,而外部董事有利於提高董事會監督的有效性,降低董事會與經理人合謀的可能性,減少管理層機會主義行為。其中,董事會成員中的獨立董事有更加重要的作用。獨立董事可以提高董事會相對於管理層的獨立性,保證董事會的公正性和透明性,是影響董事會獨立性的重要因素。獨立董事的專業知識背景也增加了企業決策的專業性和客觀性,有助於提高公司風險承擔意願和風險承擔能力。
兩權分離導致管理層有道德風險和逆向選擇的傾向,他們可能存在機會主義行為。董事長和CEO兩職合一意味著管理層自己監督自己,削弱董事會的監督職能,使得管理層缺乏承擔風險的動機,為了謀求個人利益放棄高風險高收益項目的可能性更大(Fama & Jensen,1983)。而現代管家理論認為董事長和總經理都追求股東利益最大化,公司治理的重點不在於監管,而在於提高經理層的自主權和積極性,兩職合一可以提高決策效率。兩職合一也會增加管理者對風險感知的自信和樂觀程度,影響風險承擔偏好(Anderson et al.,2006)。
董事會異質性對企業風險承擔產生影響,主要是指董事會成員不同的認知模式對企業風險承擔程度的影響。認知模式決定了個人對公司所處環境的感知模式和解決問題的方式,異質性較高的團隊整體性較差,在協調和交流方麵存在衝突,決策效率更低。所以異質性高的董事會,更有可能提供來自不同視角的觀點和經驗,意見更為多元,在投資項目的選擇上也更保守和謹慎(Harjoto et al.,2014)。
董事會群體斷裂帶對企業風險承擔的影響的相關研究發現,如果董事會群體斷裂帶較強,則需要董事會分配大量精力處理子群體之間的衝突和溝通問題,會阻礙董事參與討論。不確定性條件下群體決策的相關研究表明,群體內共享目標的達成和決策責任的分散有助於群體作出高風險決策(Watson & Kumar, 1992)。一方麵如果決策群體可以通過信息交換以及群體內部討論形成被大多數成員所接受的共享目標,那麼群體成員更願意嚐試風險較高的決策(Harjoto et al,2014);另一方麵,由於決策失敗的責任由決策群體共同承擔,群體斷裂帶較強的董事會麵臨嚴重的溝通障礙以及群體間的認知偏見,難以形成可以分散責任的情感紐帶。為了避免承擔決策失敗的責任,董事會最終可能會傾向於風險更小的決策。
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